Discussion Questions Week 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Discussion Questions Week 1 - Essay Example For instance, it might be determined that a 4-year degree at a technical school will provide a $100,000 income while a 2-year degree at a specialty school will only provide a $60,000 income after graduation. A person must determine the steps involved in getting an education and determine which option will be the most valuable long-term. A person making $60,000 will have less financial capabilities than another who earns $100,000, making it harder to contribute to charitable or community organizations. However, the time investment should be considered as part of economics because family members will be affected, as well as the whole of a person’s lifestyle, depending on which decision is made. The biggest question which should be asked is how decision-making will impact the self, the household, the local community and even the broader society as part of economics in daily life. From an organizational viewpoint, economics determines how specific activities impact other activities in a society. A manufacturing business will determine the cost of raw materials, the labor and investment necessary to produce them, and consider whether customers will want to buy these products. As a single organization, micro-level business activities and various departments work together in the pursuit of generating a final product. Each division or business unit maintains a unique function, however each contributes to the whole of the organization, creating an entire unit of economic activities. In the business environment, it is a common theme to recognize aspects of sales and marketing, such as knowing your consumer and their basic demographics such as income, social lifestyle and cultural values. From a macro-level perspective, social systems work together with their own unique functions, creating a solid society where each action by each group impacts the other group. This is no different in business as the

The French artist Gustave Courbet Essay Example for Free

The French artist Gustave Courbet Essay In the late nineteenth century faith in science and technology reflected a growing sense that people could observe the facts of everyday life carefully, understand them, and use the understanding to control the world more successfully than ever before. The artists also closely observed contemporary life in their paintings. During the second half of the century their focus included the methods of science and the realities of urban life. The romanticism of the early-nineteenth-century culture – which had idealized love, religion, and the exotic – gave way to a gritty sense of realism. Realists felt free to look modern life full in the face and both praise its successes and criticize its failings. Innovative painters turned to realistic depictions of life on their canvases. The French artist Gustave Courbet (1819-77) who believed that the artist should â€Å"never permit the sentiment to overthrow logic† led the attack on the romantic art by painting sober senses of urban life and rural labor. Gustave Courbet is today known as a â€Å"realist† for his essentially unsentimental portrayal of life in the mid-nineteenth century. One of the most famous of his early works is his vast A burial at Ornans (fig. 1) of 1849. Its acute description of this simple yet profound ceremony seems to have provoked very specific, sometimes vehement, responses in the years immediately after its unveiling, and as a result the realism was thought to be motivated by little more than socialist concerns. The negative reaction to this subject matter should not come as a surprise, as throughout the history of western art few artists had ever considered the plight and devoting of the peasant as a topic worthy of serious attention – other than for overtly sentimental or moralizing reasons . But it would be misleading to view Courbet as principally a politically motivated painter; instead, his work asserts a very modern notion that an artist is first and foremost a social barometer of the age and context. Courbet’s painting technique is not easy to describe because of its variety and disregard for the academic rules governing composition. He often inserted his figures as if they were removable set pieces. In spite of this ‘collage’ technique, many of his pictures look as if they had been painted at a single sitting because of their unity of color. They were in fact often produced very quickly. Courbet prided himself on being able to paint a picture in two hours as well as produce several versions of equal quality. On the other hand Courbet’s pictures frequently form a closed world: landscapes can give the impression of being locked away, and, though they are at close quarters, people may turn away from the viewer like in The Stone-breakers. Thus a stiff composition is often found in conjunction with a fluid use of color. The special quality of Courbet’s work is really achieved by means of color. Courbet initially imitated 17th-century Dutch and Spanish painters (Rembrandt, Hals, Velazquez, Ribera) from whom he derived the use of black as the starting-point. He employed a dark ground throughout his life, but the treatment of surfaces changed. Courbet resorted more and more to using broad brushes: he rejected detailed academic painting. By working increasingly with a spatula and palette knife he gave color a special, substantial quality, which influenced van Gogh and Cezanne . In 1861 Courbet wrote: â€Å"An epoch can be reproduced only by its own artists. I mean artists who have lived in it. I hold that the artists of the century are fundamentally incompetent to represent the things of a past or future century†¦ It is in this sense that I deny the existence of an historical art applied to the past. † This was, of course, an affront to the academic standards of Neo-Classicism, but it also was an artistic call to arms for expression tied directly to the events, traumas, and psychology of the age – art as a dynamic if sometimes uncertain voice within culture, rather than a decorative or didactic tool. This opinion did not go over very well in critical circles, since most influential writers and â€Å"taste-makers† still viewed art as a tool for moral elevation and profound teaching, and consequently saw everyday events as simplistic and unworthy subject matter. As a result, Burial at Ornans was rejected at the Universal Exposition of 1855 . Courbet responded by setting up his own show in a tent next to the official exhibition. In the process, the always flamboyant Courbet sealed his reputation as a master of self-promotion, again a posture considered unworthy of an artist in earlier times, and a politically astute artist. Some critics assert that a dramatically different view of art can alter the way in which the artist, and thus the viewer, comes to appreciate an artwork’s meaning . It is known that there is an important reciprocal relationship between contemporary ideas in other fields of human inquiry and those in the visual arts. If one attentively considers Courbet’s The stone Breakers (fig. 2) of 1849 one can understand that the relationship between form and content is no less important to Courbet, but his choice of conventions to accentuate his message is telling. Though Courbet understood and even utilized a number of traditional compositional devices in his execution of work, the seemingly natural gestures of the figures give the impression of an authentic and perhaps more â€Å"natural† space. Rather than developing an architectural framework or other mathematically derived pictorial structure, Courbet’s painting enables the viewer to enter into the scene with few external or otherwise presumed considerations other that the labors of the two man. As a result, one’s concentration is thrust upon these two solitary figures and their brute activity; if there is any heroism present, it must rest with the travails of the workers, and the elevation of the here and now. The two men’s tattered clothing and averted faces make them seem anonymous and therefore representative of many other workers. While there is dignity in their work, Courbet does not glorify either the stonebreakers or nature. The scene, like the men’s lives, is harsh. Painted only a year after the 1848 revolt in France, it speaks of an art for the masses and a creative process intimately linked to the stresses of the street. This is what â€Å"realism† meant to Courbet. Courbet like other realistic artists depicted everyday life on large canvases, and thereby earned the wrath of those artists and critics who believed that only paintings of historical, mythological religious or exotic scenes should be considered great art. Figure 1 Courbet, Gustave A Burial at Ornans 1849-1850 Oil on canvas 10 3 1/2 x 21 9 (314 x 663 cm) Musee dOrsay, Paris Figure 2 Courbet, Gustave The Stone Breakers 1849 Oil on canvas 10 3 x 8 6 (160 x 259 cm) Formerly Gemaeldegalerie, Dresden (Destroyed 1945) Bibliography Berger, K. â€Å"Courbet in his Century†, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, II (1943): pp. 19–40 Joseph C. Sloane â€Å"The Tradition of Figure Painting and Concepts of Modern Art in France from 1845 to 1870† The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 7, No. 1 (Sep. , 1948), pp. 1-29 Novotny, Fritz. Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780 to 1880. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1960. Schapiro M. â€Å"Courbet and Popular Imagery. An Essay on Realism and Naivete†, Journal of the Warburg Courtauld Institutes, IV (1941): pp. 164–91 Weir, David. Anarchy Culture: The Aesthetic Politics of Modernism. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997.

Two Cross-National Lessons for Pontevedro

Two Cross-National Lessons for Pontevedro 1. Introduction This report implements cross-national lesson drawing in order to suggest two lessons for the improvement of Pontevedro’s planning system. For these two lessons to be successfully transferred they must be ideas that fulfil Pontevedro’s needs, and how a policy works in the ‘exporter jurisdiction’ must be understood (Rose 1991). A lesson is then created, but importantly, one has to understand if the conditions that make the lesson ‘work’ in the ‘exporter jurisdiction’ also exist in the ‘importer jurisdiction’ (Rose 1991). The first lesson for transfer comes from France and its policy on regions and the second from Vancouver and its policy on zoning. These two, I believe, would do the most to improve Pontevedros planning system. However, the report will remain realistic and critical about the scope for transfer. 2. A regional policy lesson 2.1 Pontevedro in context Currently Pontevedro has a population around 78,100 with a quarter to a half of the island’s people living in the capital Letinje. Pontevedro is divided into communes of different sizes, from the smallest, Govenska parish with a population of only 356, to the largest, Letinje City Council (Cowell 2013). These communes administer their own budget and are economically independent. Each commune imposes their own local taxation, with no support from central finances (Cowell 2013). Consequently, there is a big gap in financial proficiency between the various authorities (Cowell 2013). Moreover, there are issues with the allocation of resources due to the communes being wholly responsible for service provisions such as transport infrastructure modernisation, waste collection and waste disposal (Cowell 2013). Thus a lot of the smaller communes are forced to contract these jobs out to private enterprises. For instance, waste disposal and water sanitisation in the south side of the isl and are carried out by ‘Merdeaway’, a French water company (Cowell 2013). This disposal process is considered uneconomical, rudimentary and could be organised and executed much more efficiently. 2.2 The French regional system In order to combat these concerns with resources, lessons can be drawn from the French planning system. The French system was always strongly based at national level; this means that like Pontevedro there have been issues with fragmentation (Booth et al. 2007). This problem was handled by the creation of various modifications that have altered the allocation of planning powers. It is an amalgamation of two of these modifications which would provide a useful and successful ‘policy transfer’ (Rose 1993) for Pontevedro’s planning system. The first modification affected the regional level of hierarchy due to changes in centralisation which led to the formation of a new level of government (Newman and Thornley 1996). This new level of legislation saw twenty-two new planning regions established in 1964, each of which revolved around the recognised administrative boundaries (Newman and Thornley 1996). This new successful regional level was created mainly for economic planning reasons and since the 1960s the involvement of the state at this new level has progressively increased (Newman and Thornley 1996). Furthermore, all twenty-two regions possess the ability to produce strategic regional plans as well as economic development controls. The second relevant modification affected the communal level of government and was known as the ‘syndicat de communes’ (Booth 1993). Communes that were not self-sufficient in terms of efficiently providing services were encouraged to forge partnerships with each other. Thus by sharing resources the communes could provide better services (Booth 1993). These modifications of the French system assisted in the resolving of the significant problems with fragmentation of a heavily centralised government and has meant that planning responsibilities have been redistributed to where they are more successfully controlled (Booth et al. 2007). 2.3 The application of the lesson As was the case in France, the smaller communes in Pontevedro find it hard to provide particular services effectively, such as road maintenance (Cowell 2013). Therefore, as was done in France, the creation of partnerships between communes in order to provide better services would be an effective way of tackling this issue. In addition, rather than simply forming collaborations between communes it is suggested that this be combined with the creation of a new level of government where particular planning abilities and service provision are operated. This would mean certain powers and duties would be shifted from the communes to this new level and would generate a four regions structure. In all four regions there would be sufficient resources in terms of finance and workers that could address the problems effectively. The four regions would also construct regional plans which would take care of development in the area. This four regions policy would be successful as the regions would be able to amalgamate all the resources from the communes of which they consist, and provide quality services for each commune irrespective of resources or size. 2.4 The issues with decentralisation There are, however, some underlying issues with decentralisation and the creation of a regional level. De Mello and Barenstein (2001) argue that decentralisation can cause irresponsible spending and corruption as well as creating a strain on state budgets, as an increase in regional staff may not be matched by a cutback at the central level. Mello and Barenstein (2001) also highlight that central and regional government need equal attention with a suitable balance of centralisation and decentralisation. This is particularly important in issues such as the unequal geographic distribution of resources, people and poverty, which requires redistribution policies that only the central government can guarantee. Finally, one of the reasons for the decentralisation of France was because it is a large country of around 547,030 km2 (Encyclopedia of the Nations 2013) making it difficult to effectively manage all areas of the country (Treisman 2006). In contrast Pontevedro is only around 1, 144 km2 (Cowell 2013) thus the geographical size of the island could also play a factor. 3. A zoning policy lesson 3.1 Pontevedro in context Since Pontevedro has a constitutional system (Cowell 2013), there appears to be one clear mechanism for determining where development will take place in these regions. Through cross-national lesson drawing one can observe that all countries that have their basis in Roman law control development through the mechanism of zoning. As Pontevedro is based on Roman law (Cowell 2013), zoning would seem the best system to employ. Nonetheless, as to which country inspiration should be drawn from still needs to be resolved. 3.2 The Vancouver zoning system The zoning system from which ‘policy transfer’ (Rose 1993) appears to be most successful for Pontevedro is that of the city of Vancouver. The Vancouver zoning mechanism has developed to incorporate a discretionary component (Leary and McCarthy 2013). This innovative element tackles the problems in the majority of modern day zoning systems (Punter 2002). This notion of discretionary controls combined with zoning is present in a number of Canadian cities; however Vancouver possesses an international status as a city with high quality design (Punter 2003) and is known as one of the top destinations to live in the world (Punter 2002). It must be noted that the notion of discretion and zoning can be identified as contradictory, as discretion infers an aspect of leniency, and zoning is perceived as an inherently fixed concept (Cullingworth 1993). However, Booth (1996, p.110) states that, â€Å"Discretion is rarely absolute, but must operate within limits.† This illustrates that zoning can contain a discretionary element within its regulatory restrictions. This has been accomplished in Vancouver because of its advanced planning system and urban design policies, as well as refined guidelines, processes and procedures (Punter 2002). This sophisticated system came into being due to the natural geography of the city, the concept of good design and the high emphasis on aesthetic quality (Leary and McCarthy 2013). Furthermore, the Vancouver Charter, passed in 1953, permitted the creation of individual administrative systems detached from provincial controls (Brunet-Jailly 2008). This meant that there was significant delegation of planning powers to the Directors of Planning, in order to prevent the interference of councillors in permit processing affairs; therefore skilled development planners had the top control posts (Punter 2002). The primary discretionary feature of Vancouver’s successful zoning system is one where zoning has become design-led (Punter 2003). In Vancouver, the development plan procedure is operated by the zoning bylaws; these convert general planning ideologies and design ideologies into regulations (Punter 2003). These regulations control building heights, floor space and land use. They then correspond with the discretionary components, in this instance, design guidelines (Punter 2003). What makes Vancouver stand out from other zoning systems is its policy to give incentives for good design (Punter 2003). If the applicant obeys the design standards, then that applicant will receive an incentive of additional floor space, thus raising the profit potential available to them from that development. As a result, the fundamental negative control system of zoning has a positive element and encourages good design (Punter 2003). 3.3 The application of the lesson When applying the Vancouver system, an element of design quality can be integrated into new development within Pontevedro, this would subsequently respect and enrich the island’s built environment. Therefore Vancouver’s system is applicable to Pontevedro, especially given Pontevedro’s desire to preserve their culture and heritage, as witnessed with the displeasure at the demolition of the Gavno landmark (Pontevedro Sun-Herald 2007). Additionally, the Vancouver system will succeed with the constitution in place in Pontevedro because Vancouver shares the same constitution. One of the issues with the current system is that there is a problem with sporadic development of houses along segments of the coastline, ribbon development near main roads and demand for new housing. Drawing influence from Vancouver’s zoning policy should be beneficial in the struggle with these problems; however at the same time there are issues when implementing this policy. 3.4 The issues with zoning Zoning can cause concerns due to the fact it does not include every aspect of development. For instance, zoning can be inclined to concentrate on individual lots instead of focusing on the impacts of development in general (Cullingworth 1993). This is a result of two ideas. Firstly, zoning seldom is concerned with timing or the presence of infrastructure (Cullingworth 1993). Essentially, a development project can be proposed, which although complies with the zoning regulations, is isolated in terms of infrastructure, amenities and other developments. Secondly, the usual opinion of municipalities is that they support development (Cullingworth 1993). Cullingworth (1993, p.167) highlights this development-led idea when he observes: Instead of asking â€Å"is the proposed development desirable in the public interest at this place at this point in time?† The typical municipality starts from the presumption that any development is good and, in any case, it is unfair to penalise a particular owner with a refusal. Consequently it is difficult for zoning to be consistent with other planning matters. Therefore it is important that the Pontevedro government consider the application of mechanisms to control urban growth, as well as reflecting on development on a larger scale. According to Cullingworth (1993), there are several ways this can be done, such as zone regulations, urban growth limits, restricted subdivision, phasing development as well as infrastructure provision and land preservation for particular use, such as protecting farmland. Moreover, zoning is characterised by inflexibility and rigidity in terms of apportionment of land for development. Therefore, it can be flawed when there are changing conditions, such as the requirement for a new type of development (as seen with Pontevedro’s flourishing financial sector) or for controlling aspects such as traffic infrastructure (also seen in Pontevedro), and the aesthetics and design of development (Cullingworth 1993). Additionally, zoning can be vulnerable to corruption and favouritism (Cullingworth 1993). Even though this is the case in many systems that utilise zoning as a device to control development, there are places that overcome these problems (Cullingworth 1993). 4. Conclusion This report has outlined two of the policy transfers for the creation of a new Pontevedro planning system. Even though these lessons deal with some of the major issues they do not provide a comprehensive planning system by themselves. However, the chosen lessons do constitute what is essentially the basis of the new planning system, focusing on the planning structure and procedure for delivering and regulating development. The creation of regions by the merging of communes, as done in France, will deal with the issue of service provision and will generate a more effective system to the pre-existing one. Zoning, although it has its limitations, was suggested as an instrument for development control because Pontevedro is a constitutional state. Vancouver provides a useful policy transfer that handles issues existing in most zoning systems, implants a level of design quality and improves the island’s built environment; as well as providing a starting point for the preservation of cultural. Both of these policies can be transferred to Pontevedro’s new proposed planning system because they have succeeded in their own and other countries, they solve certain issues found in Pontevedro and due to some similarities between the two countries the policies can be applied to Pontevedro. 5. Bibliography Booth, P. 1993. The cultural dimension in comparative research: making sense of development control in France. European Planning studies 7 (1), pp.1-26. Booth, P. 1996. Controlling Development: Certainty, Discretion And Accountability. London: Routledge. Booth, P., Breuillard, M., Fraser, C. and Paris, D. 2007. Spatial Planning Systems of Britain and France: A Comparative Analysis. London: Taylor and Francis. Brunet-Jailly, E. 2008. Vancouver: A Sustainable City. Journal of Urban Affairs 30 (4), pp. 375-388. Cowell, R. 2013. Pontevedro: General Description. Available at: https://learningcentral.cf.ac.uk/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_tab_group_id=_2_1url=/webapps/blackboard/execute/launcher?type=Courseid=_331353_1url= [Accessed: 10 December 2013] Cullingworth, J. 1993. The political culture of planning: American land use planning in comparative perspective. New York: Routledge. De Mello, L. and Barenstein, M. 2001. Fiscal Decentralization and Governance: A Cross-country Analysis. IMF Working Paper 01/71. Washington DC: International Monetary Fund. Encyclopedia of the Nations. 2013. France – Location, Size, and Extent. Available at: http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Europe/France-LOCATION-SIZE-AND-EXTENT.html [Accessed: 17 December 2013] Leary, M. and McCarthy, J. 2013. The Routledge Companion to Urban Regeneration. London: Routledge. Newman, P. and Thornley, A. 1996. Urban Planning in Europe: International Competition, National Systems and Planning Projects. London: Routledge. Pontevedro Sun-Herald. 2007. ‘Demolition of Well Known Gavno Landmark’. Pontevedro Sun-Herald. 6 October, pp.1-3. Punter, J. 2002. Urban Design as Public Policy: Evaluating the Design Dimension of Vancouvers Planning System. International Planning Studies 7 (4), pp. 265-282. Punter, J. 2003. The Vancouver Achievement: Urban Planning and Design. Vancouver: UBC press. Rose, R. 1991. What is lesson drawing? Journal of Public Policy 11 (3), pp.1-30. Rose, R. 1993. Lesson-Drawing in Public Policy. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House Publishers. Triesman, D. 2006. Explaining fiscal decentralisation: geography, colonial history, economic development, and political institutions. Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 44 (3), pp. 283-288. Word count: 1, 992 1 | Page

progressive america :: essays research papers

Progressive America? The early 1900’s can also be referred as the progressive movement because of the many reforms and improvements that occurred during the era. 2005 is much like the earlier progressive movements and can be classified as a progressive era. 3 out of the 4 goals of progressivism are being practiced during the 21st century. Social welfare, economic reform, and moral improvements are still being practiced to try to improve the quality and fairness of life in the U.S. Social welfare improvements are occurring right now to try and better our country as a whole. Bush’s new plan calls for standardized testing and education reforms to try and improve literacy in the U.S. much like during the 1900’s when woman’s groups were fighting for better education standards in schools. In fact standardized testing was first suggested in the early 1900’s to try and improve schools. Many in the 1900’s were advocates for child protection such as Florence Kelly who helped establish child labor laws and set up schools. In the progressive period we first saw the salvation army and attempts to try and improve living conditions for many Americans, groups like the YMCA help build safe communities to keep kids out of trouble. In 2005 Bush recently tried to improve poverty by modernizing social security to keep retirees from going broke. Bush also plans to update Medicare provide tax relief to those who need it. Just like in the early 1900 ’s aid groups are on the rise and have broadened there boundaries to help more people (doctors without borders, red cross, operation smile). During the era we witnessed a climb in the birth of many of these groups but in 2005 we are seeing a rapid increase in the number of non-profit organizations much like those simpler ones we saw in the past. The need to keep children safe has also sprung to life again as it did in the progressive era the need for children to â€Å"stay of the streets† as fueled many people to open/found teen centers and other hangouts where kids can be under adult supervision. Economic reform was and is very important to the survival of this country during the progressive period and directly indicates that 2005 is a progressive era. During the progressive era economic improvements was basically just revealing corrupt companies and trying to give the workers more rights and powers.

Intro to Public Relations Notes

The Challenge of Public RelationsPR is multifaceted ?A public relations professional must have skills in ?Written and interpersonal communication ?Research ?Negotiation ?Creativity ?Logistics ?Facilitation ?Problem solving Global ScopeThe public relations industry is growing in many nations ?Almost $8 billion spent each year in the US ?Expected growth of 23% in Asian revenue in the next five years ?Annual spending of $2. 2 billion in China A Variety of DefinitionsA number of definitions have been formulated over the years Cutlip, Center, and Broom, Effective Public Relations ?Public relations is the management function that identifies, establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the various publics on whom its success or failure depends. ?Glen Cameron, University of Missouri ?Public relations is the â€Å"strategic management of competition and conflict for the benefit of one's own organization-and when possible-also for the mutual benefit of the organization and its various stakeholders or publics. † ?Public Relations Society of America (2012) Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics ?Kevin Trowbridge (2012) ?Public relations is the communication management function through which organizations build and maintain mutually beneficial relationships with the public on whom the organization's success or failure depends.Public Relations – Key Terms†¢Communication†¢Management†¢Build and Maintain†¢Mutually Beneficial†¢Relationships†¢Organization†¢Publics RPIE†¢Research†¢Planning†¢Implementation†¢EvaluationDifferences between Journalism and PR Journalists|PR Professionals| Use only two components (writing and media relations)|†¢ Use many components| †¢ Are objective observers|†¢ Are advocates| †¢ Focus on a mass audience|†¢ Focus on def ined publics| †¢ Use only one channel|†¢ Use a variety of channelsDifferences between Advertising and PR Advertising|Public Relations| †¢ Works through mass media|†¢ Relies on a variety of communication tools| †¢ Addresses external audiences|†¢ Targets specialized audiences| †¢ Is a communications function|†¢ Is broader in scope| †¢ Is a communication tool in PR|†¢ Fills a support role| †¢ Sells goods and services|†¢ Creates a favorable environment for an organization's survival|How PR Supports Marketing†¢Eight ways public relations supports marketing ?Develops new prospects ?Provides third party endorsements ?Generates sales leads ?Paves the way for sales calls ?Stretches dollars ?Provides inexpensive literature ?Establishes credibility ?Helps sell minor products Differences between Marketing and PR Marketing|Public Relations|†¢ Is concerned with customers and selling products or services|†¢ Is concerned wit h building relationships and generating goodwill|†¢ Deals with target market, consumers, and customers|†¢ Deals with publics, audiences, and stakeholders|Toward an Integrated Perspective: Strategic Communication†¢Concept of integration: ?To use a variety of strategies and tactics to convey a consistent message in a variety of forms†¢Global/Multicultural†¢Research based†¢Relationship focused†¢internet/new media oriented†¢Toolbox-driven tacticsA Changing Focus in Public Relations†¢The evolution of the role of PR beyond publicity and media relations†¢Growth for PR professionals in health care, consumer goods, financial services, and technology†¢Crisis management in the larger context of strategic management of conflict Personal Qualifications and Attitudes Six Essential Abilities ?Writing skills ?Research ability ?Planning expertise ?Problem-solving ability ?Business/economics competence ?Expertise in social media 5 Emerging Trends in PR†¢Storytelling (and â€Å"story selling†)†¢Quantification†¢Visual Communications†¢Proactive and Predictive Monitoring†¢Adaptation 10 sills PR Pros will need in 2020†¢Advertising Copywriting†¢Video Editing/Production†¢Mobile†¢Social Content Creation/Curation†¢Analytics†¢Search Engine Optimization†¢Speed to Information†¢Programming Skills†¢Managing Virtual Teams†¢Blogger OutreachWhat Employers Want: 10 Qualities Good writing†¢IntelligenceCultural literacy†¢The ability to recognize a good story when you see one†¢Media savvy†¢Contacts†¢Good business sense†¢Broad communications experience†¢Specialized experience†¢Fresh perspective Organizational Roles†¢Communication technician roles ?Taking photographs ?Writing brochures ?Preparing news releases ?Organizing events†¢Communication manager roles ?Making communication policy decisions ?Overseeing multiple communication strategies ?Supervising employees responsible for tactics The Value of Internships†¢Win-win situation for both the student and the organization Many major PR firms have formal internship programs ?Edelman Worldwide (Edel-U) ?Weber Shandwick (Weber University) ?Hill and knowlton ?Ketchum Salaries in Public Relations†¢The national median salary for experienced professionals ?Approximately $85,000 for practitioners with 7 to 10 years of experience ?Over $150,000 for practitioners with more than 20 years of experience†¢In general, women working in the PR field earn less than men ?Factors that could lead to gender discrepancies ?The number of years in the field ?Technician duties versus managerial responsibilities ?The nature of the industry The size of the organization ?Women's attempts to balance work and familyThe Value of Public Relations†¢A service to society†¢Informative†¢Relevant†¢Earned influence through managing competition and co nflictA Brief History of Public Relations†¢In the beginning†¦ ?Moses and Aaron ?800 years later – Aristotle (â€Å"Father of Rhetoric†) ?300 years later – Jesus Christ ?†No one in history, before or since, could match his skill as a storyteller, a critical skill for public relations practitioners. † ?Then – the Apostle Paul†¢Ancient beginnings ?The Rosetta Stone ?Julius Caesar ?The Church Public relations in colonial America ?Promoting settlement ?Struggle for independence ?Boston Tea Party, Thomas Paine, Federalist Papers†¢The age of the press agent ?The age of hype ?Davy Crockett, Buffalo Bill, Annie Oakley ?Press agent tactics ?The master of pseudoevent: P. T. Barnum ?Tom Thumb, Jenny Lind†¢Public relations grows as America grows ?Settling the American West ?Railroad promotion techniques†¢The rise of politics and activism ?Political beginnings ?Amos Kendall ?Activists ?Abolitionists ?Prohibitionists ?Women's ri ghts advocates ?Environmentalists†¢Modern public relations comes of age ?Henry Ford Positioning and accessibility ?Ivy Lee ?First public relations counselor ?Rockefeller ?Colorado Fuel and Iron Company labor strike ?George Creel ?WWI ?Edward Bernays ?Father of modern PR†¢Public relations expands in postwar America ?Rapid growth in all areas of public relations along with the development of mass media ?able to capture and seize information and give it to the media/people†¢Evolving practice and philosophy ?1800s to 1920s from press agentry to public information to scientific persuasion ?centered around the wars: How effective is propaganda? How do we pursued people that what we're doing is good? 1950s and '60s – Relationship building ?Necessitated by activism ?What was happening was about people, giving people equality, seeing people as unique and equal beings ?1970s and '80s – Managerial approach ?Investor relations and MBO (Management by Objective) ?MBO = Managerial approach PR adapted to ?1990s and '00s – Relationship management ?relationship building as well as relationship maintaining Four Models of Public Relations†¢Gruing and Hunt: ?Press agentry/publicity ?age of hype associated with P. T. Barnum ?Public information ?Ivy Lee, Edward Bernays comes in at the end of public information ?Two-way asymmetric listen to the people and tailor around their wants and needs ?Two-way symmetric ?the â€Å"ideal† mode of practice ?goal is to identify policies and actions that are mutually beneficial to both parties ?collaborative ?openness for the organization to change itself based on the consumerTrends in Today's Practice of Public Relations†¢Feminization of the field ?70% of PR practitioners are women ?Women earn less money than men ?Recent research ?PR was one of the first fields that allowed women to display their abilities†¢The importance of diversity ?Minorities constitute 36% of US citizens ?Hispanics are the fastest growing group Minority practitioners lag behind population trends ?Professional groups seek to encourage minority practitioners ?†Who do people trust? They trust people most like themselves. † ?Religious, gender, race, etc.†¢Other major trends in public relations ?Transparency ?Didn't become a trend until two-way asymmetric/symmetric ?An ever-broadening social medial toolbox ?Increased emphasis on evaluation ?Showing ROI (return on investment); showing that what we do has results ?Managing the 24/7 news cycle ?New directions in mass media ?Outsourcing to public relations firms ?The importance of lifelong learning looking for opportunities to develop yourself professionally; learning doesn't stop when school does A Growing Professional Practice†¢The Public Relations Society of America ?The largest national public relations organization in the world ?The Public Relations Student Society of America (PRSSA)†¢The International Association Business Communications ?The second-largest organization of communication and public relations professionals†¢The International Public Relations Association ?A London-based global organization Professionalism, Licensing, and Accreditation†¢Professionalism ?Professional practitioners should have: A sense of independence ?A sense of responsibility to society and public interests ?Concern for the competence and honor of the profession ?A higher loyalty to the profession than to an employer ?Careerist versus professional values ?Technician mentality†¢Licensing ?Advocates ?Defines PR, unifies curricula, unifies standards, protects clients, protects practitioners, raises practitioners' credibility ?Opponents ?Violates 1st amendment, malpractice laws exist, states license but PR works nationally/internationally, ensures only minimum competence/ethics, increased credibility not ensured, expensive Accreditation ?†Certification† by professional organizations ?PRSA and IABC o ffer accreditation Public Relations Departments†¢Importance of PR in today's organizations ?PR pros seen as strategic communication managers ?PR offers 184% ROI ?CEOs want communication that is strategic, research-based, and two-way†¢Organizational factors determined the role of public relations ?Large vs. small firms ?Management perceptions ?C-suite attitudes/reporting issues ?Capabilities of the public relations executive†¢How public relations departments are organized ?Leader titles ?Reporting hierarchy Size of departments†¢Common divisions found in large corporations ?Media relations, investor relations, consumer affairs, government relations, community relations, marketing communications, and employee communications Line and Staff Functions†¢Line manager ?Delegates, sets goals, hires, influences others' work†¢Staff function ?Little direct authority ?Indirectly influence others' work through suggestions, recommendations, advice ?PR is a staff functi on†¢Access to management ?PR influence is linked to access to top management ?Recommendations to management help in formulating policyLevels of Influence†¢Advisory: Management has no obligation to request or act on recommendations ?Purely advisory practitioners are often ineffective †¢Compulsory-advisory: Management is required to listen to public relations' perspective before acting †¢Concurring authority: PR and others must agree on an action Sources of Friction †¢Legal ?Differences on public statements †¢Human Resources ?Differences regarding employee communications †¢Advertising ?Competing for resources ?Philosophical differences †¢Marketing ?Focuses on one public: current or prospective customers The Trend toward Outsourcing Almost 90% of Fortune 500 companies use outside PR counsel in varying degrees ?The need for additional â€Å"arms and legs† ?To obtain a unique perspective and market insight Global Reach †¢Firms and their offices or affiliates are situated in most of the world's major cities and capitals †¢Substantial revenues from international operations Public Relations Firms †¢Firms have regional, national, and global reach †¢PR Firms can complement in-house expertise ?PR Firms offer diverse services †¢Rapid growth of PR firms †¢Emphasis on the counseling aspect †¢The rise of communication conglomerates Many firms are owned by communication conglomerates and thereby can offer integrated services (i. e. , PR and advertising expertise) through affiliates ?The reason for acquisition of PR firms ?Natural evolutionary step of integration ?Economic interest †¢Structure of a counseling firm ?Depends on size of firm ?Small firm may only have owner and one or two associates ?Large firms have an extended hierarchy Pros and Cons of Using a Public Relations Firm Advantages |Disadvantages| †¢ Objectivity| †¢ Part-time commitment| †¢ Skills and expertise| †¢ Need for long briefing| †¢ Extensive resources| †¢ Internal resentment| Offices throughout the country| †¢ Need for direction| †¢ Problem-solving skills| †¢ Need for information and confidence| †¢ Credibility| †¢ High costs| Fees and Charges †¢Basic hourly fee, plus out-of-pocket expenses ?Most widely used among large firms †¢Retainer fee †¢Fixed project fee †¢Pay for placement ?Seldom used Class Notes 1/28/2013 ?Ivy Lee and Edward Bernays are essential to Public Relations ?Bernays = father of modern public relations ?Public Relations Anagrams ?Crap Built On Lies ?Spout Brilliance ?Social Blueprint understand the bigger picture, map out a strategy, give instructions to people involved ?shift came with industrialization ?Ivy Lee – first pr counselor; first to say it's not just publicity ?declaration of principles (pg 49 in book) ?Advancing the concept that business and industry†¦ ?Dealing with top executives and carrying out†¦ ?Maintaining open communication with the news media ?Emphasizing the necessity of humanizing business†¦ Class Notes 2/4/2013†¢ Four essential steps of Public Relations†¢ Research situation – organization – publics†¢ What is Research? –What do you think of when you think of research?†¢ Science†¢ Studies†¢ Statistics†¢ So much!†¢ Searchable BackgroundChapter 5-6 Overview ?The four essential steps of effective public relations ?Research: The first step ?Research methods ?Planning: The second step Research: The first step ?Situation ?Organization ?Publics ?What is research? ?A form of listening ?Asking questions and looking for answers ?Essential to any public relations activity or campaign Questions to ask before research design ?What's the problem (or opportunity? ) ?organization ?situation ?publics ?Kind of information needed? ?How will results be used? ?Public (or publics)? ?Who should do it? ?How will data be analyzed/reported/applied? ?Timetable? ?Budget? Using Research ? Ways to research ?Achieve credibility with management ?Executives want facts, not guesses and hunches. ?Define/segment publics ?Gathering detailed information about demographics, lifestyles, characteristics, and consumption patterns helps to ensure that messages reach the proper audiences ?Formulate strategy Test messages ?Research can determine which message is most salient to a target audience ?Prevent crises ?An estimated 90% of organizational crises are caused by internal operational problems rather than by unexpected natural disasters or external issues ?Professionals can prevent a conflict or crisis through environmental scanning and other research tactics ?Monitor competition ? Organizations keep track of what the competition is doing ?Research on the competition can be done with surveys, content analysis of the competition's media coverage, and reviews of industry reports in trade journals Generate publicity ?Polls and surveys can generate publicity for an organization ?Measure Success ?The bottom line of any public relations program is whether the time and money spend accomplished the state objective Research Methods ?Types of Research ?Informal research ?Unplanned/spontaneous, Uncontrolled, Unsystematic ?Formal Research ?Planned, controlled, systematic ?Secondary research ?existing information ?Primary research ?New/original information ?Methodological Approaches ?Historical/Critical ?Rhetorical/textual/content analysis ? Qualitative Exploratory, rich data, often not generalizable ?Focus groups, in-depth interviews, observations ?Quantitative ?Descriptive/explanatory, often generalizable ?Mail surveys, telephone polls Qualitative vs. Quantitative Qualitative Research|Quantitative Research| â€Å"Soft† data|†Hard† data| Usually uses open-ended questions, unstructured|Usually uses closed-ended questions, requires forced choices, highly structured| Exploratory in nature; probing, â€Å"fishing expedition† type of research|Descriptive or explanatory type of research| Usually valid, but not reliable|Usually valid and reliable| Rarely projectable to larger audiences|Usually projectable to larger audiences| Typically uses nonrandom samples|Typically uses random samples| Examples: Focus groups; one-on-one, in-depth interviews; observation; participation; role-playing studies; convenience polling|Examples: Telephone polls; mail surveys, mail-intercept studies; face-to-face interviews; shared cost, or omnibus, studies; panel studies| Research Techniques ?Organizational materials ?read every piece of information on an organization's website ?Library and online databases Journal of Public Relations Research ?Internet ? Any number of corporations, nonprofit organizations, trade groups, special-interest groups, foundations, universities, think tanks, and government agencies post reams of data in the Internet. ?Content analysis ?The systematic and objective counting or categorizing of content ?In public relations, content often is selected from media coverage of a topic or organization ?Interviews ?Personnel faced with solving a particular problem often â€Å"interview† other public relations professionals for ideas and suggestions ?Focus groups This technique is widely used in advertising, marketing, and public relations to help identify the attitudes and motivations of important publics ?Copy testing ?A draft of a material/message tested on a group of people before it is sent out to the public; can happen within a focus group ? Scientific sampling methods Random Sampling ?Probability Sampling ?Everyone in the target audience has an equal chance of being selected ?Nonprobability sample is not random ?Most precise random sample is selected from list naming everyone in the target audience Sample Size Usually a sample of 250 to 500 people will provide data with a 5 to 6 percent margin of error ?A sample of 100 people will provide about a 10 percent margin ?responses could go 10% either way Reaching Respondents ? Mail questionnaires ?Telephone surveys ?Personal interviews ?Piggyback surveys ?Web and e-mail surveys Research: Let's Practice ?What's the problem (or opportunity)? ?Kind of information needed? ?How will results be used? ?Public (or publics)? ?Who should do it? ?How will data be analyzed/reported/applied? ?Timetable? ?Budget? *Articulate the benefit, value, or need for public relations – possible quiz/test question Planning: The Second Step ?Planning must be strategic and systematic ?Planning involves the coordination of multiple methodsElements of a Public Relations Plan1. Situation Analysis ?Public relations professionals cannot set valid objectives without a clear understanding of the situation that led to the conclusion that there was a need for a public relations program 2. Goals 3. Key Publics (or Target Audiences) ?Public relations programs should be directed toward specific and defined audiences or publics 4. Objectives ?Once the situation or problem is understood, the next step is to establish objectives for the program. 5. Strategies ?A strategy statement describes how, in concept, a campaign will achieve objectives; it provides guidelines and themes for the overall program 6. Tactics ?Tactics describe, in sequence, the specific activities that put strategies into operation and achieve the stated objectives 7. Materials 8. Activities Calendar/Timeline/Responsibilities (WBS) ?The three aspects of timing in a program plan are deciding when a campaign should be conducted, determining the proper sequence of activities, and compiling a list of steps that must be completed to produce a finished product 9. Evaluation/Measurement The evaluation element of a plan relates directly back to the state objectives of the program. objectives must be measurable in some ways to show clients and employers that the program accomplished its purpose 10. Budget ? Both clients and employers inevitably ask, â€Å"How much will this program cost? † Holy GOST of Public Relations Planning ?Goals – Where you want to go ?Objectives – How you know when you get there ?Desired Result: Awareness, Acceptance or Action ?Key Public ?Measure/Level of Accomplishment ?Timeframe/Deadline ?Strategies – How are you going to get there ?Tactics – What you'll need to get there The GOST must be aligned! Planning: Let's Practice ?Goals ?Objectives ?Strategies ?Creative ?e. g. , themes, messages Implementation: The Third Step ?Implementation ?May be called â€Å"communication† ?Or may be referred to as â€Å"execution† ?Is the process and the means by which objectives are achieved (i. e. , strategy is implemented) ?Tactics are developed to implement the plan ?Logistics are managed Public relations is the communication management function through which organizations build and maintain mutually beneficial rel ationships with the publics on whom the organization's success or failure depends. Communication: the systemic process of creating meaning Goals of Strategic Communication ?Awareness ?Message exposure ?Public relations personnel provide materials to the mass media and disseminate other messages through controlled media such as a newsletters and brochures ?Accurate dissemination ?The basic information, often filtered by media gatekeepers, remains intact as it is transmitted through various media ?Acceptance ?Attitude change ?the audience not only believes the message but also makes a verbal or mental commitment to change behavior as a result of the message ? Action ?Behavior change Members of the audience actually change their current behavior or purchase the product and use it Making Sure the Audience Receives the Message ?Schramm's model ?Source > Encoder > Signal < Decoder < Destination ?Expanded reflects two-way communication ?Grunig's model of symmetrical communication ?Understanding is the principle objective of public relations rather than persuasion Making Sure the Audience Pays Attention to the Message ?Theoretical perspectives ?Lasswell's definition of communication ?†Who says what, ?in which channel, ?to whom, ?with what effect? † ? Media uses and gratification ?Passive audiences Active audiences Making Sure the Audience Understands the Message ?Importance of language ?Understand cultural differences ?Check writing for simplicity and clarity ?Readability formulas: Flesch, Cloze ?Use symbols, acronyms, easy-to-remember slogans ?Avoid jargon, cliche, hype, euphemisms, discriminatory language Making the Message Credible ?Source credibility ?The problem of source credibility is the main reason that organizations, whenever possible, use respected outside experts or celebrities as representatives to convey their messages ? Context of the message ?Action (performance) speaks louder than a stack of news releases Involvement ?Involvement is interest in or concern about an issue or a product Making the Message Memorable ?Repetition ?Necessary because all members of a target audience don't see or hear the message at the same time ?Reminds the audience, so there is less chance of failure to remember the message ?Remember the message ?Can lead to Improved Learning and increase the chance of penetrating audience indifference or resistance ?Offsets the noise surrounding the message ?Contributes to credibility ? Delivering information in a variety of ways via multiple communication channels Communication Channels ?Face to Face Mediated ?Owned Media ?Paid Media ?Earned Media ?Shared Media Making Sure the Audience Acts on the Message ?Everett Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations ?A process by which any innovation is diffused through certain channels and then adopted over time among members of a social system Innovation: Anything New (e. g. , Idea, Method, Product, Service, etc. ) ?Relative Advantage ?The degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it replaces ?Compatibility ?The degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, experiences, and needs of potential adopters Complexity ?Degree to which an innovation is perceived as being easy to adopt ?Trialability ? The degree to which an innovation may be experienced on a limited basis ?Observability ?The degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others Stages of the Adoption Process ?Awareness ?A person becomes aware of an idea or a new product, often by means of an advertisement or a news story ?Interest ?The individual seeks more information about the idea or the product, perhaps by ordering a brochure, picking up a pamphlet, or reading an in-depth article in a newspaper or magazine ?Evaluation The potential consumer evaluates the idea or the product on the basis of how it meets specific needs and wants. Feedback from friends and family is part of this process ?Trial ?The person tries the product or the idea on an experimental basis, by using a sample, witnessing a demonstration, or making qualifying statements such as â€Å"I read†¦Ã¢â‚¬  ?Adoption ?The individual begins to use the product on a regular basis or integrates the idea into his or her belief system. â₠¬Å"I read†¦Ã¢â‚¬  becomes â€Å"I think†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Evaluation: The Fourth Step ?Evaluation is the measurement of results against agreed-upon objectives established during planning Evaluation improves the public relations process Three Kinds of Evaluation ?Ongoing ?Summative ?Formative (Research? ) Basic Evaluation Questions ?Adequately planned? ?Message(s) understood? ?How could strategy have been more effective? ?Audiences reached? ?Objectives achieved? ?What was unforeseen? ?Budget met? ?Future improvements? Objectives: Prerequisites for Measurement ?Develop a clearly established set of measurable objectives ?Outcome ?Awareness ?Acceptance ?Action ?Output Measurement and Evaluation Status ?3 Levels of Measurement ?Basic ?Measuring ?Targeted Audiences Impressions ? Media Placements ?Intermediate ?Retention ?Comprehension ?Awareness ?Reception ?Advanced ?Behavior Change ?Attitude Change ?Opinion Change Measurement of Message Exposure ?Compile clippings/mentions ?Most widely used metric ?Media Impressions ?Placement x circulation/viewership/listenership ?Internet hits ?Advertising equivalency ?Space/time x advertising rate ?Systematic tracking ?Analyze volume and content of media placements ?Information requests ?Cost per person ?Audience attendance Measurement of Audience Awareness, Attitudes, and Action ?Audience awareness ?survey day-after recall ?Audience attitude ?related to awareness ?baseline/benchmark studies ?Audience action ?the ultimate objective of any public relations effort ?measure desired behaviors Chapter 7 – Public Opinion and Persuasion Overview ?What is public opinion? ?Opinion leaders as catalysts ?The role of mass media ?The role of conflict ?Persuasion in public opinion ?Factors in persuasive communication ?The limits of persuasion What is public opinion? ?Three aspects about public opinion formation ?Society is passive Psychologists have found that the public by and large tends to be passive ?Society is segmented ?One issue may engage the attention of a part of the population with a particular vested interest, whereas another issue arouses the interest of another segment ?Society is divided ? People have some opinions that may conflict or compete with others' opinions about the same issue. People also sometimes hold contradictory opinions or attitudes ?Public Opinion is powerful ?Activate public through public opinion ?Identify key publics through analysis of public opinion What do you think? What is the role of opinion leaders in the formation of public opinion? Opinion Leaders as Catalysts ?Opinion leaders can be formal or informal ?Interested in a particular issue ?Knowledgeable on a given topic ?They help frame and define issues that often have their roots in individuals' self-interests ?It is through the influence of opinion leaders that public opinion often crystallizes into a measurable entity ?The flow of opinion ? Multiple-Step Flow ?Opinion makers derive large amounts of information from the mass media and other sources and share that information with people The attentive public is interested in the issue but rely on opinion leaders to synthesize and interpret information ?The inattentive public are unaware of or uninterested in the issue and remain outside the opinion-formation process ?N-Step Theory ?N-step theory states that individuals are seldom influenced by only one opinion leader but actually interact with different leaders ?Diffusion Theory ?Individuals adopt new ideas or products in five stages: awareness, interest, trial, evaluation, and adoption. Individuals are influenced by media in the first two steps and by friends and family members in the third and fourth steps. Each individual is a decision maker who adopts a new idea or product when they reach the final step The Role of Mass Media ?Agenda setting ?media tell the public what to think about, albeit not necessarily what to think ?Framing ?media and PR both have role in how issues are â€Å"framed,† which parts are emphasized The role of Conflict ?Conflict inherent in news frames ?Use of media for strategic agenda-building Persuasion in Public Opinion ?Persuasion is used to†¦ ?change or neutralize hostile opinions ?crystalize latent opinions and positive attitudes ?maintain favorable opinions Persuasion and Negotiation Persuasion is comparable to negotiation ?Public relations can be used as a tool leading to the alternative dispute resolution (ADR) process Factors in Persuasive Communication ?Audience Analysis ? Knowledge of audience characteristics such as beliefs, attitudes, values, concerns, and lifestyles is an essential part of persuasion. It helps communicators tailor messages that are salient, answer a perceived need, and provide a logical course of action. ?Appeals to Self-Interest ?People become involved in issues or pay attention to messages that appeal to their psychological, economic, or situational needs. Audience Participation ?Attitude or beliefs are changed or enhanced by audience involvement and participation. ?Suggestions for Action ?A key principle of persuasion is that people endorse ideas and take actions only if they are accompanied by a proposed action from the sponsor. ?Source Credibility ? A message is more believable to an intended audience if the source has credibility with that audience. ?Clarity of Message ?Many messages fail because the audience finds them unnecessarily complex in content or language ?Content and Structure of Messages ?Channels Different media with different features can be used for diverse public relations purposes. ?Timing and Contexts ?A message tends to be more persuasive if environmental factors support the message or if the message is received within the context of other messages and situations with which the individual is familiar ?Reinforcement ?People tend to ignore or react negatively to messages that conflict with their value or belief systems Appeals to Self-interest ?Appeal to psychological, economic, or situational needs ?Maslow's hierarchy of needs Audience Participation ?Workers involving in the problem solving Distribution of samples ?The act of participation encouraged by activist groups Suggestions for Action ? Recommendations for action must be clear to follow Source Credibility ?Expertise ?Sincerity ?Charisma Clarity of Message ?Public relations practitioners should ask two questions ?Will the audience understand the message? ?What do I want the audience to do with the message? Content and structure of messages ?Drama and stories ?Surveys and polls ?Statistics ?Examples ?Endorsements ?Causes and rationales ?Emotional appeals Channels ?Different media can be used for diverse public relations purposes television ?newspaper ?radio ?social networking sites ?face-to-face communication Timing and Context ?Timing and context should be considered for achieving publicity in the mass media as well as for being persuasive Reinforcement ?A public relations campaign should be in sync with an audience's core value or belief system Limits of persuasion ?Lack of message penetration ?Competing or conflict messages ?Self-selection ?Self perception Chapter 8: Managing competition and conflict Overview ?A new way of thinking: conflict and competition ?the role of public relations in managing conflict it depends: factors that affect conflict management ?the conflict management life cycle ?managing the life cycle of a conflict A New Way of Thinking: Conflict and Competition ?Public relations can be defined as the strategic management of competition and conflict ?Competition ?Conflict Role of public relations in managing conflict ?Strategic conflict management ?Conflict is inherent in public relations process ?PR professionals must develop communication strategies to manage the conflict What do you think? ?What are some real world examples of conflict management? Is conflict always bad for organizations? Why or why not? It Depends: Factors that Affect Conflict Management ?Stance-drive approach in managing conflict and competition ?External and internal variables > stance > strategy The Threat Appraisal Model ?PR professionals monitor for threats, assess those threats, arrive at a desirable stance for the organization, and then begin communications efforts from that stance ?situational demands ?resources Contingency theory ?Contingency factors ?a matrix of factors drive the stance ?The contingency continuum ?The stance is dynamic; it changes as events unfold The Conflict Management Life Cycle Proactive – to prevent a conflict from arising ?environmental scanning ?issues tracking ?issues management ?crisis planning ? Strategic – emerging conflict is identified as needing action ?risk communication ?conflict positioning ?crisis management ?Reactive – must react when conflict reaches a critical level of impact ?crisis communication ?litigation pr ?conflict resolutions ?Recovery – strategies employed aftermath to bolster or repair reputation ?reputation management ?image restoration Managing the Life Cycle of a Conflict ?Four systematic processes ?Issues management A proactive approach to ?predict problems ?anticipate threats ?minimize surprises ?resolve issues ?prevent crises ?Strategic positioning and risk communication ? Strategic positioning ?communication efforts to position the organization favorably regarding competition and conflict ?Risk communication ?an attempt to communicate risks to the public that impact health, safety, and the envorinment ?Crisis management ?Smoldering crises ?a study but the institute for crisis management found that 86% of business crises were â€Å"smoldering crises. † ?How various organizations respond to crises Coombs' crisis communication strategies ?attack the accuser ?denial ?excuse ?justification ?ingratiation ?corrective action ?full apology ?Reputation management ?The three foundations of reputation ?economic performance ?social responsiveness ?the ability to deliver valuable outcomes to stakeholders ?Image restoration ?denial ?evade responsibility ?reduce offensiveness ?corrective action ?apology Deja Vu – All over again ?Conflict management is like deja vu all over again by starting once again with tasks such as environmental scanning and issues tracking Chapter 9: Ethics and the Law Overview ?What is ethics? ?Professional guidelines ?Dealing with the news media ?Public relations and the law ?Employee communications ?Copyright law ?Fair use versus infringement ?Trademark law ?Regulations by government agencies ?Liability for sponsored events ?Working with lawyers What is Ethics? ?Value system by which a person determines what is right or wrong What Do You Think? ?How can a public relations practitioner play the role of an â€Å"ethical advocate? † The Ethical Advocate ?The ethical advocate is operating within an assigned role ?Ethical decisions are made based on the public interest ?the interests of employer/client ?professional organization code of ethics ?personal values Professional Guidelines ?PRSA Code of Ethics ?Values ?Advocacy ?Serving the public interest by acting as responsible advocates for clients or employers ?Honesty ? Adhering to the highest standards of accuracy and truth in advancing the interest of clients and employers ?Expertise ?Advancing the profession through continued professional development, research, and education ?Independence ?Providing objective counsel and being accountable for individual actions ?Loyality Being faithful to clients and employers, but also honoring an obligation to serve the public interest ?Fairness ?Respecting all opinions and supporting the right of free expression ?Provisions ?Free flow of information ?Competition ?Disclosure of information ?Safeguarding confidence ?Conflicts of interest ?Enhancing the profession Codes of Conduct ?The role of professional organizations ?public relations society of america (PRSA) and international association of business communicators (IABC) ?to set the standards and ethical behavior of the public relations profession Ethics in Individual Practice Ethics in public relations begins with the individual, and is directly related to h is or her own value system as well as to the good of society Dealing With the News Media ?Trust ?Gift giving undermines the relationship between public relations professionals and the media ? Transparency Public Relations and the Law ?Defamation ?libel (printed), slander (oral) ?making a false statement about a person or organization that creates public hatred, contempt or ridicule, or inflicts injury on reputation ?Avoiding libel suites ?four requirements for filing a libel suit ?false statement ?identified or identifiable actual injury ?negligence Employee Communications ?Product publicity and advertising ?written permission required ?Employee free speech ?freedom of expression ?employees are limited in expressing opinions within the corporate environment ?privacy vs monitoring ?FOIA and government officials ?whistle-blowing Copyright Law ?Copyright is the protection of creative work from unauthorized use ?registration is not a condition of copyright protection, but it is a prerequisite to an infringement action against unauthorized use by others ? What organizational materials should be copyrighted? How can you use the copyrighted materials of others? Fair Use Versus Infringement ?Fair use allows partial use of copyrighted material with attribution ?Permission is required if used in advertisements or promotional items ?New copyright issues on the internet have been raised ?Rule of thumb: ?get permission ?give credit The Rights of Photographers and Artists ?Freelance and commercial photographers retain ownership of their work ?The rights of freelance writers ?unless a company has a specific contract with a freelance writer to produce work that will be exclusively owned by that company, the freelancer owns his or her work Trademark Law ?Trademarks are registered words, names, symbols, or devices used to identify a product ?The protection of trademarks ?always capitalized never used as nouns (Kleenex tissues, Xerox copies) ?Trademark infringement ?the downside for a corporation who trademark becomes too commonly used Misappropriation of Personality ?A form of trademark infringement ?Unauthorized use of well-known entertainers, professional athletes, and other public figures in an organization's publicity and advertising materials Regulations by Government Agencies ?The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) ?The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) ?Other regulatory agencies ?The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) ?The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms ?The Federal Communications Commission Liability for Sponsored Events ?Plant tours and open houses ?Considerations ?logistics ?work disruptions ?safety ?staffing Working with Lawyers ?A cooperative relationship must exist between public relations personnel and legal counsel

Realism In International Affairs Essay

Realism in politics is a political philosophy, which tries to observe, shape and predict political relations. It is based upon assumption that power should be the primary goal of any political act, both in international or domestic sphere. As far as domestic affairs are concerned, this theory states that political figures are supposed to direct all efforts to maximizing their power. Accordingly, in the international sphere nation should aim at maximizing its power among other states. This theory can be regarded as a prescription to be followed by politicians and states or as a description of current affairs of the state or politician pursuing self-interest. Realism in politics is often defined as a principle of power supremacy, and it has a long history since the ancient times. It was reflected in Peloponnesian War by Thucydides. This theory was also touched by Machiavelli in his writing The Prince, as well as by other outstanding philosophers like Spinoza, Hobbes and Rousseau. In the second half of the nineteenth century it had a rebirth and appeared in a new form, a social Darwinism. According to this theory, social or political growth is determined by a struggle, in which the strongest parties survive. According to the theory of political realism, interests should be satisfied by means of power exercise, and the world is defined by competing powers. In this context, the adherents of Marxist theory refer to classes, while other political theorists to states. (Ahrensdorf) Political realism is explained in the following way: â€Å"Prior to the French Revolution in which nationalism as a political doctrine truly entered the world’s stage, political realism involved the political jurisdictions of ruling dynasties, whilst in the nineteenth century, nationalist sentiments focused realists’ attentions on the development of the nation-state, a policy that was later extended to include imperialist ambitions on the part of the major Western powers-Britain and France, and even Belgium, Germany and the United States were influenced by imperialism. † (Viotti, Kauppi). Important difference between social darwinism and other branches political realism is as follows: adherents of the former state that some nations are destined to rule over other nations, while other part of realists pays most attention to the need of ensuring that nation, culture or politician sets or secures own needs before needs or interests of others. Political realism in international affairs Political realism of an expressive kind stands for the suggestion that international commonwealth is distinguished by anarchy, since there is no absolute world government, that could rule with an all-purpose policy code. Since the anarchy does not need a chaotic nature, thus allowing member nations be involved into trading schemes or treaties, the theorists mostly agree that morality or law are not the dominating factors outside one particular state. In this particular characteristic this hypothesis agrees with the Hobb’s theory: â€Å"Where there is no common Power, there is no Law: where no Law, no Injustice ? if there be no Power erected, or not great enough for our security; every man will and may lawfully rely on his own strength and art, for caution against all other men. † (Hobbes, Leviathan , Part I, Ch. 13 ‘Of Man’, and Part II, Ch. 17, ‘Of Commonwealth, cited in Griffiths, O’Callaghan). Respectively, without any supreme international force, nations treat each other with hostility or fear, and it damages the system. Another aspect of the theory is an assumption that a state can promote its interest against the needs and interests of other states, it proves that international surrounding is not stable. Any order is affected if states compete for the same need, and under such circumstances, as the realists state, the nation may rely on itself only. There are definite contradictions that can be found in the concept of political realism: descriptive realism may be regarded as a true theory or false concept. Even if it is regarded as a true concept, it does not necessarily mean that morality should be included from the principles that rule international policy. One of the strong forms if descriptive type of political realism states that states should be self-seeking, that they should build their policy basing upon desired gains of the nation and should not ignore their interests and demands. Simultaneously, â€Å"if descriptive realism is held, it is as a closed theory, which means that it can refute all counter-factual evidence on its own terms (for example, evidence of a nation offering support to a neighbor as an ostensible act of altruism, is refuted by pointing to some self-serving motive the giving nation presumably has–it would increase trade, it would gain an important ally, it would feel guilty if it didn’t, and so on), then any attempt to introduce morality into international affairs would prove futile. † (Stern) The assessment of expressive kind of political realism power depends upon the chance of understanding political reasons, which requests understanding the causes of state diplomats and representatives. The pattern of officers’ relations, their motives and actions is complex. Waltz says that the closed nature of expressive realism includes a oppose scheme that nations does not serve any needs at all, or can serve the needs of others only. The logical value of the three theories resulting from this concept offers that preferring one condition to another is an optional decision, if an assumption is accepted, or not. (Waltz) The present international sphere of nations’ interaction is defined by the lack of supreme power. In the past, wars were a strong argument in support of political realism – there have been more than 200 wars since the middle of the 17th century. This condition seems to have a chaotic nature, and some thinkers are likely to compare it to domestic anarchy, when state government is not able to rule the state: ‘Without a world power, war, conflict, tension, and insecurity have been the regular state of affairs; just as a domestic government removes internal strife and punishes local crime, so too ought a world government control the activities of individual states-overseeing the legality of their affairs and punishing those nations that break the laws, and thereby calming the insecure atmosphere nations find themselves in†. (Kegley, Wittkopf) At the same time, such comparison leads to a conclusion that the relations between the state and the individuals are alike. Such argument includes the personification of the states and collectivization of individuals. Some theorists state that the relations between states and the citizens cannot be compared to the relations between the states and the relations of the individuals, and therefore should be differently judged. In addition to the propositions of descriptive realism, there are notions offered by prescriptive political realism, for instance, the statement that a certain nation should follow its own interests and needs independently of the relevant state of international relations. This theory can be divided into various aspects, depending upon proclaimed interest of the nation and the allowability of the tools that would be used to reach desired goals. As far as the national interest is concerned, there are distinct opinions of what it should be, but all of them agree that the state should be self-efficient in economical and political sphere, cutting dependency on other nations. (The Globalization of World Politics: an Introduction to International Relations) The statement supporting the supremacy of self-sufficiency of the state has appeared long time ago. Plato and Aristotle referred to this aspect as a ground necessary to provide security of the national power, they insisted that nation should import only insignificant commodities. This economic theory has been used for supporting political realism, especially in the 18th century the theorists of political sphere stated that the political power of the nation is reached and supported in the terms of reduced import and increased export only. Difference between neorealism and classical realism Conflict is regarded as a key element in politics, including international affairs, by all realists, however, there are two different sources of conflict, pointed out by different realist authors. For instance, classical realism theory starts with a pessimistic viewpoint on the human nature. As the adherents of this theory believe, selfish, competitive and striving for power behavior in inherent for the humans. Hans Morgenthau states that each individual is enforced to act uncaringly to protect himself, and this situation leads to the disagreement: â€Å"What the one wants for himself, the other already possesses or wants, too. Struggle and competition ensue†¦. Man cannot [therefore] hope to be good, but must be content with not being too evil†. (Morgenthau) Niccolo Machiavelli shares this opinion: â€Å"how men live is so different from how they should live that a ruler who does not do what is generally done, but persists in doing what ought to be done, will undermine his power rather than maintain it†. (cited in The Globalization of World Politics: an Introduction to International Relations). These ideas performed specific approach to a strategy applied in international affairs: a careful statesman must avoid optimistic view on others’ aims and intentions and limits their initiatives to those that may help if the situation goes better. For instance, Henry Kissinger warned the leaders of the USA and Israeli against the intentions of Syria and Palestine, during the negotiations on Middle East conflict: â€Å"It is likely that agreements will be reached †¦ because the alternatives will, in the end, seem more dangerous. But when this happens, we must avoid euphoria†¦. An agreement will represent a strategic interlude for the Syrians and most of the Palestinians, not a commitment to a new world order. † (Legro, Moravcsik) In other words, classical type of realism regards conflict and competition as essential element of international affairs, referring the origin of conflict to the human nature. Humans struggle with each other for resources they need and strive for power to rule over other people. This is a set pattern, which cannot be changed. Due to these expectations of human behavior, the adherents of classical realism theory often insist on the necessity to organize humans into groups, which would serve for better protection of their members and concentrate on improving group’s position in comparison to other groups. Another theory, neorealism or structural realism, refers the origin of conflict to interstate condition, the lack of legally restricting rules in particular, rather than to human nature. The adherents of neorealism state, that â€Å"the absence of a neutral authority that can enforce rules and agreements creates an insecure, self-help situation in which all policy makers are pressured to act competitively, regardless of their individual natures or personal preferences. † (Kegley, Wittkopf) This statement is not new, it appeared in the 17th century in the work of Thomas Hobbes. In his writing Leviathan he states that the in the world, which lacks supreme power that could provide security, people has a right to use any tools to protect themselves. Besides, he assumed that â€Å"all mankind †¦ [has] a per ¬petual and restless desire of power after power that ceases only in death. † (cited in The Globalization of World Politics: an Introduction to International Relations) Modern tradition in neorealist theory declines the assumption that individuals strive for power due to a natural inclination, and concentrates on the motives produced by a lack of a neutral power that can set rules for interstate relations. For instance, Kenneth Waltz says that â€Å"the main cause of war must lie in some regularity at the level of the interstate system, rather than within particular leaders or states, since war has been waged for all sorts of specific reasons and by â€Å"good† as well as â€Å"bad† leaders. † (Waltz) According to Waltz, this regularity is the pressure, produced by anarchy: â€Å"Without enforceable interstate rules, states must either resist possible domination by others through a policy of balancing against others’ power capabilities, or by bandwagoning-joining a coalition that supports an aggres ¬sive state, in hopes of turning its aggression elsewhere†. (Waltz) Waltz states that large states possess the capacity and desire to withstand the strength of other states. This results, as he sees it, in a tendency of competitiveness among states independently of the views of their leaders concerning domestic policy. Actually, the prediction of this statement is not much different from the assumption made by the adherents of classical realism. As soon as it is based on the assumptions concerning human nature, classic realists expect that the makers of policy also act competitively. The difference lies in the way this conclusion is reached. As Waltz sees it, this is the pressure of competitiveness, produced by anarchy, which significantly influences the human behavior. Those strategies that are oriented on power, appear because the leaders are forced to struggle for security, rather than because they desire just to obtain power. Realistic approach in modern international affairs Realism was a concept for analyzing world politics since remote times, because much of humankind history was characterized by wars. As soon as the states’ interests come across in conflict, it is expected that leaders pay much attention to their positions in power. â€Å"The classical realist worldview appealed to many statesmen during the period that states were evolving in Western Europe-an era rife with conflict, as medieval forms of rule broke down and rulers asserted new claims to authority against feudal lords or the Pope. It jumped to the United States when the experiences of World War II were followed by the onset of the Cold War. Neorealism later emerged when the bipolarity of the Cold War drew analysts’ attention to the effects of the structure of the interstate system†. (Lieven, Hulsman). At present, ethical realism is offered to the USA as a leading principle that should define the foreign policy of this state. As it is described by the supporters of this type of realism, it bases upon â€Å"prudence; a concentration on possible results rather than good intentions; a close study of the nature, views and interests of other states, and a willingness to accommodate them when these do not contradict America’s own truly vital interests; and a mixture of profound American patriotism with an equally profound awareness of the limits on both American power and on American goodness† (Lieven, Hulsman). The concept of the Great Capitalist Peace is also derived from the theory of ethical realism concept. It is based upon the ideas of Kennan and Morgenthau, including the concepts of diplomacy purposes and international order. It proclaims that a global order is needed to be agreed by the largest states, to provide the promotion of their interests and reduce the threat of terrorists. Accordingly, the USA power is treated as an element, vital for keeping the Great Capitalist Peace. At the same time, it is added that the limits should be put on the US power, in order to legitimate interests and needs of other states should be satisfied. Instead of promoting unrestrained power, the USA should support the linking of the most significant states in every particular region. For instance, in the Middle East region the USA should use its power and resources to support creation of a regional patter for the states, including Syria and Iran, and to make this pattern functional enough to regulate Iraq conflict after withdrawal of the US troops from this country. (Lieven, Hulsman) As far as the Far East is concerned, the USA should paid attention to the primary role, which should be played by China in this region, but not by the United States. China is treated as a state, ready to act in cooperation with other states and act responsibly, that’s why USA should allow China to occupy a leading position in finding resolutions to the actions of the regime in the North Korea, and other possible challenges in this region. (Lieven, Hulsman) Sources Waltz, K. N. Structural Realism after the Cold War. International Security. Summer. 2000 Morgenthau, H. J. Politics Among Nations: the Struggle for Power and Peace. McGraw Hill: NY, 1993. Stern, G. The Structure of International Society. London: Pinter Publishers, 2000. The Globalization of World Politics: an Introduction to International Relations. edited by Baylis, J. and S. Smith. Oxford University Press, 2004 Griffiths, M. , O’Callaghan, T. International Relations: The Key Concepts. London, Routledge, 2002 Kegley, C. Wittkopf, E. World Politics. Thomson/Wadsworth, 2005. Viotti, P. R. Kauppi, M. V. International Relations Theory: Realism, Pluralism, Globalism. Macmillan Pub Co, 1993. Legro, J. W. Moravcsik, A. Is Anybody Still a Realist? International Security. Fall 1999 Jervis, R. Realism, Neoliberalism, and Cooperation.. International Security. Summer 1999 Ahrensdorf, P. J. Thucydides’ realistic critique of realism. Polity Winter 1997 Lieven, A. Hulsman, J. America’s World Role Has to be Realistic and Moral. October 17, 2006, retrieved at http://www. realisticforeignpolicy. org/archives/2006/10/americas_world. php.